EU Telecommunications Policy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

EU Telecommunications Policy - Case Study Example Consequently, the sphere of telecommunications was regarded to be the natural monopoly of the state while administrations and enterprises that provided communication services traditionally belonged to the public sector. The only exceptions were Spain and Italy, where mixed public-private or fully private companies offered telecommunications services (Noam 1992). However, public monopoly over the telecommunications sector started to dissolve gradually from the early 1980s on. During only one decade from 1980 to the early 1990s, the majority of telecommunication monopolies in the countries of continental Europe transformed (though not fully) into competitive markets. This process was paralleled by the transformation of bodies and enterprises formerly controlled almost exclusively by governments into private organizations (Schneider 2000). Although the transformation had multiple causalities that involved a broad range of technical, social, political and other contributing factors, the key driving force highlighted by the researchers was the drive for liberalization and privatization that became the central tendency in Europe in the late 1980s (Noame 1992). A series of decisions and directives issued by the European Commission and the Council of Ministers called for transformation of the European market in general and telecommunications sector in particular in terms of market regulations, standardization, and procurement rules. These decisions and directives have "ultimately directed toward a near-total liberalization of all kinds of telecommunications networks and services within the European Union (EU) in the year 1998" (Schneider 2000, p.61) and laid the foundation for the current strategy applied by the EU members to regulate the telecommunications sector. The EU Telecommunications Policy: Origins and Current Situation The beginning of serious structural reforms in the telecommunications sector of the European Union can be traced back to the late 1970s with the current telecommunications policy being the result of gradual evolution those days until now. These three decades can be divided into several stages characterized by specific contents, developments and implementation patterns. 1977-1986: Early Reforms The need to address the issues related to the telecommunications sector in the European Community was first highlighted in 1977, but it was not until 1980 that the European Council received a proposal clearly with clear statement of such need. However, the amount of telecom issues raised by the document was rather limited: the essence of the proposal was harmonization of the development of new services while monopoly of the state and other essential problems remained unnoticed (Alabau 2006). As a result, the action plan that ensued from the proposal was largely industrial in its nature (envisaged only opening up the handset market) and did nothing to reduce the huge influence of state monopolies in the telecommunications sector. 1987-1998: Emergence of the First Telecommunications Regulations The Single European Act of 1986 enabled the Commission to exercise more control

Importance of individual differences in understanding behaviour

Importance of individual differences in understanding behaviour If you go into any job no matter where you are in the world you will come across a multitude of different personalities and behaviours. An individuals personality doesnt just affect the individual, but everyone around them. Organizations consist of people who work together. Differences between individuals based on personality traits, may be an incentive for the development of creativity and a source of conflicts and other problems existing in the organization. Managers need to be able to measure personalities in order to make useful hiring decisions and they can do this by giving personality test and evaluating the results. This essay will cover information about the individual differences and behaviour at work. Also will give examples of method of measure of personalities and theories. Main Body The word personality derives from the Latin persona, meaning mask ( J.Maltby, L.Day and A.Macaskill, 2007). Psychological definition of personality, define personality in terms of characteristics, or the qualities typical of that individual (J.Maltby, L.Day and A.Macaskill, 2007). Psychologists are interested in what people are like, why they behave as they do and how they became that way.à Ã… ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ Ã‚ µ There two main attributes of the individual differences: ability and personality (C.Cooper, 2002). Ability is one of the traits that distinguish one person from another. There are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastery of methods and techniques of some activities and are internal mental regulators (C.Cooper, 2002). Personality stable system of philosophical, psychological and behavioural symptoms, personal feelings, thinks, behaves, that characterize the person (C.Cooper, 2002). According to information above, people differ from each other is obvious. Each person is different from any other their individual psychological peculiarity. The identity of each person is endowed with a combination of traits and characteristics that form the personality a combination of psychological characteristics of people that make up its identity, its difference from other people. Individuality manifested in the character traits, temperament, habits, the prevailing interest, as cognitive processes, abilities, individual style of activity. Studying individual differences is especially important ability for leaders and managers, enabling them to understand and relate well to others as well as understand themselves. It helps effectively promote functions and well-being among employees, because how employees will participate at work will depend on the production, reputation, quality of company or organization where person is working. There are so many different tests which can help to predict or describe personality. For example, there are two popular methods ( J.Maltby, L.Day and A.Macaskill, 2007), which managers can use to help them to determine which type of individual they want to bring to the organization or how to effectively manage the people. The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and The Big Five Personality Model, they used to measure personalities. The Myers Briggs Type Indicator is the most widely used in the world. MBTI is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. Individuals are given a 100 question personality test that asks them how they would react in certain situations. Based on the results from the test they are rated as an introvert or an extrovert, intuitive or sensing, feeling or thinking, and perceiving or judging person. Management would rate a quiet or shy person as an introvert and a person that is outgoing, assertive and sociable as an extrovert personality. And intuitive person often looks at the big picture and a sensing person has attention to detail and often likes routine and order. A feeling type of person relies on emotion and values and a thinking person uses simple reason to handle situations. A perceiving individual would be able to handle flexibility and be spontaneous, and a judging individual likes control and ofte n prefers things to be structured. The Big Five method is a research method in which it has five basic dimensions that measure human personality. Personality is an important determinant of how a person thinks, feels, and behaves; it is helpful to distinguish between different types of personality. This method uses five factors which are extraversion a person that is positive emotional and feel good and world around one, neuroticism a person that is negative emotional and view the world around negatively, agreeableness which is a person that is tendency to get along well with others, conscientiousness is a person who is responsible and organized, careful persevering, a person that has openness to experience is creative, original, has broad interest and sensitive. Depending on what the individual scores it will determine which type of personality that they have (S. Wood, M. West, 2010). If the psychological test was carefully chosen it can help organisation or practically manager to do their work easily. General personality measures may well produce some important information about candidates; however, without clear ideas about what to look for, based on a detailed job analysis and other sources (The Psychology of Personel Selection). Each person is unique and has different types of personality that may be suited to different kinds of organizational situations. Characterize human it is not enough to know his temperament and style of the nervous system. Even with a very good knowledge of someones cognitive ability and personality it would impossible, because most of factors depend on situations (The Psychology of Personel Selection). For this reason, it is not enough to spend a few tests to know as individual difference. Good manager should understand and learn how to deal with people and find right way to manage them (à Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ OB) . Dispositional factors play a considerable role in our everyday life and there seems no reason to expect that they will not have some effects on work performance Teamwork has become an important part of the working culture and many businesses now look at teamwork skills when evaluating a person for employment. Therefore, it is important that students learn to function in a team environment so that they will have teamwork skill when they enter the workforce. As I dont have any work experience I want to discuss the individual differences according to my team working experience. Starting from, that I actually dont like working in group, because you depend on your group mates, you cannot work at yourself, all time you have to common concept. On other side, there are some positive sides of working together, you can find new friends and some time just make conversation with new people. In my experience I have a lot of team projects, some of them I was enjoyed, some of them were absolutely terrible, because group working is not easy as it looks in reality, you working not with friends or people with whom you prefer to work, but with people who was selected by someone, in my example it was undergraduate office. In group team all people have different inelegance, different character, some of them hardworking, some lazy. According to my group work experience, it easy to say that in this world everything is not as easy as it look like, because sometime you have to do work which you dont like but unfortunately you have to do it. First of all, in my group work were four people including me, all of us were different nationality. In our group were conflicts, difference of opinions, discrepancies, we make decisions, sometimes not quite correct, but we did them together, so its fault belong not to one person, its belong to whole group, because decisions in group make together, because the group is one and decisions should taken collectively. It was difficult to arrange time of our meeting because everyone has different time table But when we were learn about each as some information, it was easier to work In our project most of us participate, but we had one girl, she actually didnt attend most of our meetings, we e-mail to her, called, but she didnt replay on. So we had discussion in our group and decided that we going to gave her that 10% of final work. In fact it was really useful decision, because at the final presentation she was so active, tried to participate in all decision. But our group decided that her it going to be useful lesson for future. As well as, in our group was one person, who was responsible for finance, he was really intsiastics he all time In the conclusion, Importance Of Individual Differences In Understanding Behaviour Importance Of Individual Differences In Understanding Behaviour With globalisation becoming increasingly important, the corporate world is attracting a more diverse workforce and hence an increase in individual differences. An organisation is made up of people and individual differences are a key aspect in any organisation as each and every person brings along their own personal and unique differences. Much of psychology involves finding rules that describe how people behave in general. (Cooper, 2002) Understanding and triggering the best out of the individual differences is crucial for organisations to keep a competitive edge in todays fierce business environment. However managing individual differences is a complex issue as it relates to a number of human factors such as differences in attitudes, values, perceptions of the situation and self. There are diverse roles and research to support the findings of individual differences. However, for the purpose of this assignment I shall focus on how people respond differently to particular motivation interventions. Secondly this essay will also aim at examining individual differences in regards to how motivation affects performance. Studies have shown that motivation is a key influencer in job performance for individuals within their organisation. According to Stevens (2005) motivation is central to most human activities because it governs the choice of behaviour and attitudes. Motivation at work is complex because it relates to a number of interrelated human factors and organisational factors such as individual difference in work competence and organisational procedures, reward systems and communication framework. The higher motivation one has for the job, the more probable they will be to put more effort and work more efficiently. There are various ways that organisations adopt when ensuring that their employees are constantly motivated in their job. A decrease in motivation not only affects the employee and their productivity but the organisation as a whole, as the products will not be produced to the highest quality possible. The various ways that certain methods can be implemented in organisations to increa se the motivation are; increase in wages, bonuses, increase in holidays, days out, etc. However with reference to Taylors theory of motivation, Taylor claimed that money was what the worker wanted most (Locke, 1982). This cannot be proven to be a completely correct, with the research and evidence from individual differences, this contradicts what Taylor claims. Each individual has their own preferences and therefore not will be motivated in different ways Motivation enables one to have a different outlook on their performance of any sort, they will feel a different emotion when completing a task. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the impact of motivation on attitudes towards work and job performance. Reinforcement theory demonstrates that any behaviour that is rewarded would be repeated. This is known as positive reinforcement. An example of this in the workplace could be any monetary or non monetary reward, praise, approval, promotion or access to decision making process. However, it is necessary to consider the balance of the value of rewards to avoid potentially risky behaviour. For example, an individual will be motivated to achieve the greatest reward thus deliberate omission of complying with risk management practices. According to Skinner (1938) managers giving praise to others for working to minimise risk act as a strong motivator to comply with risk management practice and encourage involvement and responsibility. Moreover Social Learning theory contends that an individual are motivated not only by reward and punishment but by observing others receiv ing rewards and punishment. Individuals are motivated to imitate the behaviour of others if they observe they are being rewarded for their behaviour. Hence, managers can lead by example to gear the individual differences into the desired behaviour. However, given that each and every individual is unique, the managers must ensure not to promote discrimination while leading through example. Goal theory shows that people are money through reward systems and involvement in goal setting. Locke (1968) argues that employees are motivated to achieve specifically stated goals which are perceived as personally achievable. Hence understanding the individual differences is vital to help the organisation set Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timely (SMART) goals to create a win-win situation. There are diverse motivation methods in which todays organisations use. There is a growing concern that more and more employees tend to increase the number of turnover within a company thus In order to keep the turnover low, managers need to find new innovative ways to keep individuals within the organisation motivated. The reality is that we can only hypothesise that people are motivated by some particular thing by looking at their behaviour and seeing if there is anything different when the particular thing is involved. (Weightman, 1999). This theory helps to reinforce the fact that understanding motivation of individuals is key in a work environment, this can help determine and predict an individuals performance within the job role. 2. In the war for talent, managers have to keep an even closer eye on staff morale and motivation. (Personnel Today, January 2001) Individual differences are seen all around; in the way each of us reacts to certain situations is a perfect example of differences. There are many diverse ways in which personality can be measured at work. Conversely to measure ones personality can be hard to define. The Big Five Model is a well known technique which explains how different personality traits link together. The Big Five Model has five diverse stages which help to identify the personalities of people, these are; Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness/ Intellect. Extraversion- this goes more into depth about how comfortable one feels around others, and also takes into consideration how sociable and outgoing a person is versus a quiet and reserved person. The more a person is sociable and outgoing, and a person who seeks out status, the more extrovert we say a person is. Agreeableness- This measures the extent to which a person is warm and trusting and open to others, versus someone who is less open and unfriendly. This can also show how a quickly a person can adapt being put in diverse situations and how friendly and welcoming they are to meeting new people. Conscientiousness- This shows the extent to how a person is organised and dependable, versus a person who is unorganised and impulsive. This will show how a person thinks and their feeling towards how they carry out certain tasks. Emotional Stability- This shows the extent of how a person is calm and stable versus a person who is more neurotic and nervous. When placed in certain situations we all experience various feelings and this can help show ones first instinct and how they adapt when placed in certain situations. Openness/ Intellect- This shows the extent to which a person is imaginative and innovative with regards to their ideas and openness to new and diverse experiences versus a narrow-minded and unimaginative individual. To fully understand the various personalities of individuals we need to know and understand all of the five different factors within the big five model. Only then will we be able to understand which category one fits into and thus can determine the way in which they are likely to react when placed in certain situations. Creating a great place to work meant developing an environment where self-motivation could take root and flourish. (Personnel Today, January 2001) When it comes to motivation within peoples careers or jobs, then employees do not want to feel that they need many incentives of motivation in order to be productive, self-motivation from within can also generate high efficiency from an individual and higher overall productivity. The pleasure of being to complete something and wanting to do well and succeed is a perfect example of self-motivation. The want or need to complete something successfully from start to finish and obtain a feeling of satisfaction, is a perfect exam ple of self-motivation at its best. LOOK IN BOOK AND ADD THE DIAGRAM AND TALK ABOUT THE MOTIVATORS FROM BOOK, AND LINK IN WITH INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. Reflective Report-From a personality report created from questionnaires which I filled out with regards to my personality. There were several questions which responded to thirteen different categories of characteristics these are; Sociability, Leadership, Optimism, Cooperation, Compassion, Sensitivity, Stability, Calmness, Order, Industry, Intellect, Culture, and Achievement. Each of these characteristics helps determine an individuals personal traits and behaviour. Both I and a peer completed the questionnaire which would help to outline individual differences in action, and show whether the way I perceive myself would be the same as the way in which my peer perceived my characteristics to be. The results in some cases show that the way in which I have seen myself, can in many cases be completely different or sometimes similar to the way in which others perceive myself. Relevant research helps to support the individual differences theory and helps one to understand how they are perceived by others and the difference in how a person might perceive them to be. Whether introvert or extrovert, all of these traits and personalities are what makes us different, and the way in which we see ourselves on a day-to-day basis can be seen completely different by someone who sees us on a day-to-day basis. Another example of how personality theories have supported certain situations that I have been placed under is doing group assignments at University. I was placed within a group of individuals that I had never previously met. After a few weeks of starting to understand one another, we all felt that we had similar qualities and personalities. Conversely weeks gone by, I started to notic e that people that I originally thought had the same personality in some certain aspects to myself, turned out to be completely different. For example, everyone in the first instance was very agreeable, which in most cases is always true, because we were all aware that this was group work and we had to work together in order for this to be completed. However after meeting often with the group, I noticed people were a lot more extroverts with their feelings, and were not afraid to let their feelings be shown, even if this was negative. In addition to this after several meetings after people who I perceived to be like-minded would be completely opposite to what I thought earlier for example; they would turn up to meetings late or not at all, whereas I am a punctual person and thought they were too from initial meetings, they were very laid-back in approach to their work, and took their time whereas in the beginning showed enthusiasm in wanting to get the work complete. In addition to this, from my personality report, it has been proven that the way in which I perceive myself to be a much organised, conscientious type of person, my traits have been perceived by others to be the same, and that others agree to an extent that I am a very conscientious person. Within the group, there were many who at first gave the impression of being very conscientious however as time went on, I found that they were quite the opposite and more impulsive. Working in a group with such diverse and in most cases opposite personalities to my own was at first daunting and quite a difficult task to ensure each person can remain motivated and get the work completed, however being able to adapt to situations proved to be a strong trait of mine, enabling me to get my message across to all people, in a positive way. Another previous experience of mine showed that I perceive myself to be a good leader in one way or another in being able to apply my thoughts across to my peers and when dealing w ith group work, I am an organised person which helps in being a good leader. From the feedback of the personality report, a friend perceived me in the same way, and thought likewise, as well as this, being in a group with students whom I had never previously met, after receiving a high result in the work, feedback came unknowingly from peers claiming they were glad I was the leader and I made an excellent leaderall credit goes to you. Which helps to show evidence that in some cases we can see ourselves and know most of what our personality is like and what others may also perceive however in many cases many people can get the wrong message about one another. The reflective report helps to support my theory of personality traits within a working environment. My experiences within working at university in group assignments and the peer profile helps to show that personality is key when understanding individuals. Personality helps to determine the outcome of an individual and what is expected of them. Recommendation- There are diverse ways in which work processes can be improved in the future, an example of this is; for managers to schedule regular one-to-one basis meetings, where employees will be able to express their concerns if they have any. On one hand, some employees prefer interaction and want to feel like they have a voice within the company. If a manager is able to effectively understand the employees needs and provide new innovative ways of implementing new systems so that can help employees to feel more motivated, they will thus achieve a better response of motivation. There are individuals who differ, which shows a clear demonstration of individual differences. Thus, some individuals will prefer to have clear guidance and a supervisor or manger to conduct regular meetings, however some may not prefer this technique. Therefore, it is the duty of the manager to get the balance right and ensure that they are able to respond to employees wants and needs. As mentioned abov e, there are various techniques of motivation interventions which can all contribute to the overall performance of an individual. By implementing these motivation factors and putting them into practice in a working environment such as; doing a group project at work, using different techniques which can be creative and not tedious can increase motivation, productivity and the overall efficiency. The downfall of having so many motivation interventions is that due to individual differences within a group, it may be difficult to know which method is the best to pursue. This can have an adverse and opposite effect leaving some members feeling rather de-motivated and generally un-interested, which creates a further problem of trying to re-motivate and create responsiveness in the group. Give advantages and disadvantages to the recommendation when being introduced in an organisation. Bibliography Fincham R, Rhodes P, (2005) Principles of Organizational Behaviour, New York: Oxford University press Inc. Furnham, A. (1992) Personality at Work: The role of individual differences in the workplace. London: Routledge Mazerolle, D, M. James, R, L. (2002) Personality in Work Organizations, London: Sage Publications Inc. Schermerhorn R. J. Jr, Hunt. G. J, Osborn. N. R (1991) Managing Organizational Behaviour, Ohio University: John Wiley Sons, Inc.

performance enhancing drugs :: essays research papers

I’m pretty sure you all have engaged in some sort of athletic competition that could be classified as a sport. If you can say that you have, most of you could not keep up with some of the more naturally athletically gifted people you were competing with or against.. If you are sitting there remembering that feeling of being inadequate, thinking back when your parents told you all that mattered is that you tried your best, was a huge crock. No matter how hard you tried you failed, you felt like the scum of the earth, and everyone was laughing at you. You let everyone down, if this has ever happened to you. You are not alone you share the same feelings of many amateur and professional athletes who feel that the only way to reach their goals, to be in the limelight, to make the winning score, they need that edge. The edge that puts them ahead of the rest, to be on a level that most can only dream of achieving. The edge some athletes use is steroids. There are many types of stero ids. To many to name, so they are talked about in groups. These groups are as follows: Stimulants, Narcotic Analgesics, Cannabinoids, Anabolic Agents, Peptide Hormones, Beta-2 Agonists, Masking Agents, and Clucocorticosteroids The most commonly used is called Anabolic steroids. A anabolic steroid is a chemical similar to the male hormone testosterone. Steroids are taken by pill, or injection. They enter the bloodstream they are distributed to organs and muscle all over the body. After reaching the organs the steroids surround individual cells in the organ, and then pass through the cell membranes to enter the cytoplasm of the cells Once in the cytoplasm, the steroids bind to specific receptors and then enter the nucleus of the cells. The steroid-receptor complex is then able to alter the functioning of the genetic material and stimulate the production of new proteins. It is these proteins that carry out the effects of the steroids. The types of proteins and the effects vary dependin g on the specific organ involved. Steroids are able to alter the functioning of many organs, including the liver, kidneys, heart, and brain. They can also have a profound effect on reproductive organs and hormones. Steroids were first experimented with in the 1860 by Brown-Sequard, although he did not know what he was using.

Youth Violence on the Possession of Firearms in School

Despite nationwide gun-free school laws that prohibit possession of a firearm on or near the property of a public or private school, students are bringing guns to school and using them against their fellow students and teachers with increasing frequency. What possesses these students to gun down their classmates? How are these students getting access to firearms? Who is ultimately responsible for these tragedies? What stresses contribute to these shootings? And how are parents and educators missing the warning signs that these children have reached the breaking point? Over the past few years, there have been an astronomical number of school shootings across the country, sending policy makers, parents, teachers, and other concerned citizens into a tailspin. These events are becoming more frequent and have shattered the sense of safety that children should have when they are in school. Shootings by students, some as young as 10, have occurred at sickeningly regular intervals in urban towns like Pearl, Mississippi, Jonesboro, Arkansas, Fayetteville, Tennessee and most recently Littleton, Colorado, where 12 students and 1 teacher lost their lives at the hand of two teen shooters who took their own lives. Firearm violence falls second only to automobile-related deaths, as the leading cause of injury-related death, in the United States. By the year 2003, firearm fatalities are projected to become the United States leading cause of injury-related death, unless the violence is curbed. In 1991, Texas and Louisiana saw firearm fatalities surpass automobile fatalities, and Virginia and Nevada also have continued this trend. In fact, the firearm death rate is increasing faster than any other cause of death except AIDS related fatalities. Recent public attention has focused on the problem of gun violence in the nation†s schools. A 1994 Gallup poll of Americans, for the first time, fighting, violence, and gangs have moved to the top of the list to tie with lack of discipline as the biggest problem facing schools. It is difficult to determine what effect the threat of violence has upon the learning of each student, but clearly education takes a back seat to one†s own sense of security and well being. According to a survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control, one in 20 high school students carry a gun and one in five students would tell a teacher if he or she knew of another student carrying weapons to school. Theories differ about where young people get their guns. School security experts and law enforcement officials estimate that 80% of the firearms students bring to school come from home, while students estimate that 40% of their peers who bring guns to school buy them on the street. The United States has weaker firearm regulations and higher numbers of deaths involving firearms than all other industrialized nations. The greatest tragedy of gun violence is the tremendous numbers of children and youth killed or injured each year by firearms. These numbers continue to increase at alarming rates. According to Gunfree.Org, in 1985, the number of firearm homicides for youth 19 years and younger was 1,339, in 1995, it was 2, 574. In 1995, guns accounted for 84% of homicides of persons 13 to 19 years of age. Averages of 14 youth each day are killed by gunshots. A group studying juvenile violence in Multhomah County, Oregon identified the inadequate response of the juvenile justice system to students expelled for possessing weapons in schools, the need for additional efforts to detect weapons, and anti-violence education in schools as primary concerns. We must, as a society, recognize that there is a cycle of violence and that violence breeds more violence. There is no single answer to the problem of violence. A multi-faceted approach is needed. Prevention must be a priority. According to a ‘Public Health† Approach, recognition of three levels of prevention activities is essential: Primary prevention: These are interventions directed at people who have no obvious risk factors for development of violence. An example would be teaching grade school children to deal constructively with anger and conflict. Secondary prevention: These activities are directed to those who show clear-cut risk factors for violence. An example would be training in anger management for people who have a history of arguments or fighting. Tertiary prevention: These activities are directed toward minimizing the danger caused by those who have displayed violent behavior. Examples include interventions to allow gang-established patterns of serious or repeated violence. Any approach to violence must include education carried out in various ways and settings including collaboration among community groups, businesses, the schools, and government. Most of all, the parents must get involved. Schools offer the opportunity to reach a substantial percentage of the youth population and teach them skills aimed at the reduction of violence. Teachers are able to identify early on problem youth and families. Schools represent an important site to convey the message of society against weapons and violence. An important part of the anti-violence prevention strategy aimed at all youth is increasing the efforts to detect weapons in schools. While schools are already vigilant about responding to individuals when specific knowledge is available about weapons possession, this approach has not addressed concerns and perceptions that a number of weapons are present in schools undetected. Expanding the commitment to zero tolerance for weapons in schools would also better communicate to youth community standards, assuming that adequate consequences are in place. Most weapons are found through reporting by a concerned student. Such reporting should be praised.

Blood Transfusion

BIOPURE INDUSTRIESA Marketing Analysis Based on the data from the case study by Jonn Gourville, Biopure Corporation , HBS, 1998April 20, 2005By Veronica Stepanova Executive  Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 Situation AnalysisI. Human  Market†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3II. Animal  Market†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Marketing Plan  for oxyglobin†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 Final  decision†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Appendix 1 A (Excel documents, separate attachment) Appendix 1 B Executive Summary Many opportunities are available in the human blood market due to several disadvantages of thecurrently available alternatives. Even more opportunities exist in the  animal blood market. †¢Oxyglobin should be positioned as a high-quality product designed for middle- to upper-classbudgets. †¢The price for Oxyglobin should be about $200 for the consumer and around $100 for the supplier(animal hospital) to account for distribution markups and other  carrying costs. †¢Distribution should be oriented in the regional  vicinity of the operation and implement largerclinics.In addition, only emergency clinics are to be targeted. Current opportunities are favorable for Oxyglobin’s launch. Situation Analysis I. Human blood market. †¢Patients with acute blood loss from  trauma  and surgery – 40% individuals aged 65+. †¢Chronic anemia  patients (any age) – 1. 5 million for the year 1995. †¢Blood loss, resulting from trauma (e. g. car accident) and exceeding 2-3 units (1 unit = 10% of  total blood content of human body) needs immediate  blood transfusion. †¢Price is largely cost-based (storage, implementation) – blood donation is free.Existing options. †¢Red  blood cells  and their components (hemoglobin, platelets, and plasma) are  collected viadonations, organized by blood collection centers and  then transfused into patients. †¢Current options allow for storage for 6  weeks in refrigerated conditions, consequently disposed of  if unused. Hemoglobin uses oxygen-carrying efficiency by 50% if not used  within the first few weeks. †¢Blood transfusion is subject to blood typing (A, B,  AB, O, positive, negative) andreception/rejection by the body. Incorrect matching may be fatal  for the patient. Infection risks slow down the process of  testing blood prior to its use and are  greater if blood isnot separated into components. Infections include the risks of AIDS, hepatitis B,  and contamination. †¢Blood transfusion is available on-site only (hospital or emergency room); as a  result, 30% traumapatients die prior to operation. †¢Blood supply is lower than demand, especially during peak periods (summer  months and winterholidays, during which car and other travel increases ? fewer donors and more patients). Blood substitutes. †¢3 companies in final stages awaiting FDA  approval (clinical testing). Entrance into market is difficult (all current processes patented) and  time-consuming – may takeup to 17 years (See case Exhibit 3). Potential to replace current blood drawing process by  component separation and purification, aswell as chemical modification and stabilization of hemoglobin. Reduced risk of contamination and increased storage capability of 2 years. Added benefits for patients with constricted or restricted blood vessels (smaller size improvedaccessibility to organs). Possibility of adapting animal blood cells for use in  humans. Risk of toxicity and body rejection (sped up  excretion). Competitors/industry players .A. Baxter &  Northfield Laboratories. †¢Both rely on human blood supply to  derive hemoglobin. †¢Red blood cells obtained from expired banks. †¢Require refrigeration. Baxter: †¢Leader in development and manufacturing of blood-oriented medical equipment. †¢Large facility – production capacity of 1 million units/year, spent $250  million on R&D. †¢Product – HemAssist – to be  priced between $600-$800. Northfield: †¢ Small facility –  10,000-unit production capability but possible expansion into  300,000 units/year. Focus on single product (PolyHeme), $70 million spent on development. B. Biopure Corporation. †¢Specializes in protein purification for pharmaceutical use. †¢Hemopure 2 years away from final approval. †¢Derived from the blood of cattle. †¢Production capacity of 150,000 but  possible production limitations due to expected concurrentusage of production equipment for animal version. †¢Need for removal of  hemoglobin clusters from product? excess process in  production ability. †¢Cost for Biopure at $1. 50 per unit of animal blood, but plan to match Baxter’s price for finalconsumer product.II. Animal blood market. †¢Mainly cats (35%) and dogs (50%). †¢800 dogs were brought to emergency  treatment due to acute blood loss in 1995,  2. 5% severe. Existing options. †¢15,000 veterinary clinics. †¢5% of vet clinics p erform emergency care, with a 75% referral rate from primary care  clinics. †¢Current blood banks insufficient, demand greatly exceeds supply: 2. 5 out of 30  cases treated. †¢93% blood drawn from donor animals (78%  in emergencies) – an ethically questionable practice. †¢150 units of blood transfused per emergency care, 17 per  primary care center (Appendix A). No effective blood typing or cross-matching systems. †¢Blood collection, storage, and transfusion too costly for proper operation. †¢Current cost of clinical care  to animal owners relatively high, undesirable. ? 84% doctor dissatisfaction with current alternatives. Blood substitutes. †¢Biopure’s Oxyglobin currently the only existing  FDA-approved substitute ready for launch. †¢No evident chemical difference in the  production process between animal and human supplement. †¢Animal supplement approved sooner than human equivalent due to less-strict regulations in theanimal consumer market. Production capacity of 300,000 units, $200 million spent on development (combined withHemopure) Marketing Plan for OxyglobinPositioning strategy. Most animal owners (enthusiasts) can be  assumed to be within the middle to  upperincome class, based on the extraneous costs of owning an animal (refer to case Exhibit 8 for a summary of  average costs of keeping a  pet). However, many consumers proved to be  price-conscious about spendingadditional funds on optional services (this will be analyzed further in the  pricing strategy); therefore, nopremium strategy should be used.The product should be positioned as  a high-quality supplement forblood transfusion, available to (affordable by) most animal owners. Pricing strategy. As cited, animal  owners expect to spend limited amounts of money on  animal care; thisis slightly different for emergency situations, where customers are willing to spend more,  as demonstratedby the survey results (Exhibit 8; Table B). The typical cost of a  blood transfusion to the customer iscurrently $100 for the traditional method; however, this price was  said to have been cost-unjustified.Still,veterinarians were cited as the  trusted source for determining a patient’s treatment selection, which putspressure on the new substitute segment to set  a competitive price standard. While profit margins mayprove higher on a higher-priced item, the  product’s sensitivity to reputation for being a supposedlyâ€Å"better, cheaper alternative† to currently available options, which would satisfy the currently largely-unfulfilled demand for blood transfusion, would pressure Biopure to price its Oxyglobin according tocustomer expectations (See â€Å"Existing options†, page 5 of this report).Those expectations, as  we can seefrom the attached appendix (Appendix 1 A and B), are that the price to the consumer be about $200 ($100to the veterinarian – keeping the  50% markup), which would give the company the largest  marginal gainin revenues (higher prices are actually marginal  losses! ), while still retaining the major demand (weconsider emergency care centers more important here,  since they have, proportionally, a much largerdemand than primary care centers).In terms of the  price difference between Oxyglobin and its competitorin the human segment, Baxter, the latter spent $50 million more on R&D than Biopure, so the pricepremium on Baxter can be  justified by higher costs; in addition, Biopure’s per-unit costs are significantlysmaller because it uses cattle blood. In addition, Biopure may price Hemopure slightly higher because of  the extra processing that goes into making it,  as well as the variation in  the segment and target audience(people are willing to spend more on  themselves than on animals). Distribution.Biopure should only target emergency care  practices. Although those only make up 5% of  the overall industry, 75% primary care specialists will refer  an acute blood loss case (such as a trauma)  toone of these centers. Furthermore, Biopure should target large practices (3+ doctors) through regionaldistributors, both of which account for the largest sales in  the industry. Considering the limited volume of  supplies Biopure is going to have, a  national distribution may not be desirable right away, until thecompany at least increases its production capabilities.A regional distributor would be local enough tounderstand the specific needs of its market (e. g. , New England), and a larger vet practice could provemore efficient (and less costly) in  terms of the availability of materials and  the reduction of transfers,thereby also reducing the consumer’s costs and increasing the rate  of success by providing a quicker  service (in other words, it would have more  cases, but more doctors available to  help overall, fewercases per doctor †“ see Exhibit 7).Of course, the drawback is that a large clinic would not be as personal. The 1 million dollar question: Should Oxyglobin be launched? – Yes. †¢Launching early allows for an audience test:? Achieve acclaim/recognition for a break-through discovery that is beneficial because it-Fulfills an unsatisfied/dissatisfied need (better quality blood  transfusion, availability);-Reduces costs to both suppliers and consumers.? Easier entry into secondary (human) market –  Ã¢â‚¬Å"tested on animals† – more trusted  than untestedcompetitors.?Potential to utilize production to full potential (instead of splitting up with Hemopure); later on, dividebased on larger per-unit profit (and  not necessarily the stated 150:300 ratio).? If fails or doesn’t test well: – Would aid in the decision about improving current human version (complete discontinuation notan option due to  the immense initial investment in R&D);- Reduce the shock of having to change both formulas (processes) simultaneously – longer timespan gives better flexibility and more time for testing and improvement – less drastic. Hemopure and Oxyglobin,  although similar in purposes, are meant for two completelydifferent segments; they should not be compared based on price because price expectations aredifferent for humans than they are  for animal needs; the demand for Oxyglobin  is clear andsignificant, while the demand for the same product in the human market is questionable. Therefore, stick with Oxyglobin – which already has the approval – and launch it.